Inability to draw cause-and-effect conclusions: The biggest disadvantage of naturalistic observation is that determining the exact cause of a subject's behavior can be difficult. This effect may be compounded by the possibility that those who apply for an assistance dog may inherently have certain positive characteristics (e.g., stable housing, stable finances, has a familial support system) that contribute to overall psychosocial health. The authors concluded that although results are promising, conclusions drawn from the results must be considered with caution [9]. The systematic literature review was conducted according to The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [21]. Our objective was to identify, summarize, and methodologically evaluate studies quantifying the psychosocial effects of assistance dogs for individuals with physical disabilities. Assistance dog categories (guide, hearing, mobility, and medical) were collapsed for the purposes of this review, but undoubtedly contribute to the lives of individuals with disabilities in diverse ways. [45] found higher health-related quality of life among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group, but not among those with a hearing dog. Of 27 studies, 7 (26%) reported outcomes from at least one standardized measure of vitality with a total of five different standardized measures. Why is animal psychology important? Undergraduates sometimes ask what the value of animal research is in psychology. However, none of the four studies using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale [CES-D; 52] found significant differences in self-reported depression among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group [3941] or after 4-months with a mobility service dog [28]. The third aim of the review was to summarize psychosocial outcomes of studies. However, on different measures of social functioning Rodriguez et al. Finally, most studies (21/27;78%) compared outcomes to a control or comparison condition. As research on the assistance animal-handler relationship continues to increase, there is a need for an updated, comprehensive collation of the literature encompassing studies on the effects of all varieties of assistance dogs (guide dogs, hearing dogs, and both mobility and medical service dogs) including both published studies and unpublished theses and dissertations. In the overall quality of life sub-category, 2/8 (25%) comparisons were significant. Advantages & Disadvantages | a2-level-level-revision, psychology Of five studies using a version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale [55] only Yarmolkevich [46] found significantly lower self-reported loneliness in those with a guide dog compared to a control group. mobility or guide), thus restricting human participants to a single category of impairments. What are the disadvantages of being an animal behaviorist . You can learn more about some of this research, as well as the ethical and regulatory issues that are involved, by consulting online resources such as Speaking of Research. Longitudinal studies addressed an average of 59% of methodological items while cross-sectional studies averaged 65%. A study such as this not only helps us better understand how the brain works, but it also has enormous potential for developing treatments for people who have abnormal patterns of brain activity, such as those with epilepsy or Parkinsons disease. In the sub-category of independence, a total of 20 comparisons were made in which 9 (45%) were significant, but 3 (15%) were in the negative direction. Can you really generalise results from animals to humans? Summary of quality of life outcomes across studies ordered by sub-category. Overall, most (68%) of comparisons made across studies were null in which no statistical difference was found in the outcome compared to before getting an assistance dog or compared to a control group. APA 2023 registration is now open! However, only 1/6 (17%) found a significant effect, in which Yarmolkevich found higher life satisfaction among those with a guide dog compared to a control group. The rationale for excluding qualitative studies from inclusion was to focus on outcomes using standardized measures to facilitate quantitative comparisons across studies. Second, only 63% of studies described inclusion and/or exclusion criteria of recruited participants, and some studies did not report all demographic or disability characteristics of participants. Most studies reported adequate detail on participant demographics such as age and sex or gender identity (23/27; 85%) as well as disability characteristics such as primary diagnoses or severity (22/27; 81%). Of 15 cross-sectional studies that surveyed individuals who owned assistance dogs for variable periods of time, 4/15 studies (27%) considered length of time of assistance dog ownership as a potential explanatory or moderating variable in analyses. Brought to you by Sciencing Unnecessary Cruelty Animal rights advocates argue that testing on animals is cruel and unnecessary. Only 5/27 studies (19%) described dogs breeds and sources. A study protocol was designed a-priori to define the search strategy, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and items for data extraction. Cross-sectional studies had the highest sample sizes with an average sample size of N = 126 +/- 73 participants (range of N = 38316), while longitudinal studies averaged N = 29 +/- 18 participants (range of N = 1055). When reporting statistical results, 78% of studies (21/27) provided estimates of variability for outcomes, including confidence intervals, standard deviations, or standard error of the mean. Service dogs can assist individuals with physical disabilities (e.g. The concept of a Regional Innovation Ecosystem (RIE) has gained significant attention in the academic literature and policy arena in recent years [1,2].Based on the inspiration of the natural ecosystem, the RIE was first introduced by Moore in 1993 as a framework for understanding the dynamics of innovation within a specific region [].The RIE can be considered analogous to a natural ecosystem . However, increasingly modern methods allow the 3R principle of reducing, refining and replacing animal experiments to be put into practice . Animal models are a fundamental tool in the life sciences. https://assistancedogsinternational.org/resources/adi-terms-definitions/, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(98)00120-8, https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/study-quality-assessment-tools, https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/specialist-unit-for-review-evidence/resources/critical-appraisal-checklists, Corrections, Expressions of Concern, and Retractions. Capitanios research interests are focused on developing naturally-occurring nonhuman primate models of psychological processes, in order to better understand the underlying biology of phenomena such as loneliness, inhibited temperament and poor social functioning. However, due to large heterogeneity and poor reporting of effect sizes and raw data, a narrative synthesis of findings in comparison to unpublished theses and published articles was pursued instead. What does an animal psychologist do? - n4vu.com For general psychological health, 5/11 (45%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. 14 Pros and Cons of Animal Research - Vittana.org Of 5 studies that used the mental health domain of the SF-36 or the shorter 12-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12), only Shintani et al. Lethality as a side-effect - mortality in animals is often the result of lack of food and water, and is not only the primary effect of the substance being studied. Overall, studies addressed an average of 62% of methodological consideration items with a range of 23% (3/13) to 100% (15/15; denominators were variable as there were two items not applicable to all study designs). Our search procedure identified 24 articles containing 27 studies assessing psychosocial outcomes from a wide variety of human and assistance dog populations. found significantly lower depression and anxiety using the POMS and GHQ-30, respectively, 6-months after receiving a hearing dog [13]. Even if we accept evolutionary psychology, humans have evolved to be very different from most other animals, perhaps all other animals. Despite the purpose of these assistance dogs specifically for physical tasks, positive outcomes were noted in psychological, social, quality of life, and vitality domains. John Capitanio, PhD, is a research psychologist in the department of psychology at the University of California, Davis, and a core scientist at the California National Primate Research Center. The results of Harlow's experiments indicated that this early maternal deprivation led to serious and irreversible emotional damage. One of the first reviews published by Modlin in 2000 [7] summarized nine published quantitative and qualitative studies on the benefits of guide dogs, hearing dogs, and mobility service dogs on their handlers (omitting unpublished theses). Six comparisons were made to measure the effect of having an assistance dog on clinical measures of depression or anxiety. The complete MEDLINE search strategy, which was adapted for the other databases, is shown in S1 Table. [16] found higher emotional functioning in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group. Using the occupation domain of the CHART, Rintala et al. For example, without any animal research, effective treatments for human conditions like Alzheimers disease may very well be found, but it would certainly take decades longer to find them, and in the meantime, millions and millions of additional people would suffer. However, inclusion and exclusion criteria were less commonly described (17/27; 63%). This pattern suggests a potential publication bias present in which disproportionately more positive findings are in the published studies than the unpublished theses [78]. Using the CHART, both Milan [41] and Davis [44] found no group differences in social integration among those with a mobility service dog control groups. Of 34 total quality of life outcomes, 9 (26%) were positive (improved or better quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 22 (65%) were null (no difference) and 3 (9%) were negative (decreased or worse quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Animal Studies AO1 AO2 AO3 - PSYCHOLOGY WIZARD Therefore, due to observed heterogeneity, a meta-analysis was not pursued. of Agriculture, and, at the local level by Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs). This practice was instrumental in our evolution and in the emergence of civilization. In other contexts, dogs can be specially trained to provide specific benefits to individuals with impairments, disabilities, or chronic conditions as trained assistance animals. Therefore, future studies are warranted that specifically assess health and wellbeing using validated parent-proxy or self-report measures to fully understand the potential effects that assistance dogs can have on children and adolescents with disabilities. Only Vincent et al. Scholarly Articles on Animal Experimentation: History, Legislation S2 Table. r/psychology on Reddit: The price of being single: An explorative study But, was then later tested on a human and the human died. 2016 Jul 20;91(2):453-66. Not only are companion dogs prevalent in modern society, but dogs are also often intentionally incorporated into therapeutic processes in the contexts of animal-assisted activities (AAA) and animal-assisted therapy [AAT; 1]. Of the 100 null comparisons, 43 (43%) were from published papers and 57 (57%) were from unpublished theses. If small rodents are incapable of feeding, they will die within hours - it is highly likely that many substances would not be toxic if a simple sugar solution was injected. Other null findings included no effect of having a guide dog on social conflict stress and interactions with others [42], no improvement in social relationships 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog, and null findings regarding self-reported friendship and companionship with a mobility or medical service dog [16] or 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28]. After the initial title and abstract review, articles were screened based on full text. Increased research on this topic is likely in parallel with the increased roles and demands for different types of assistance dogs worldwide [2] as well as increased interest in the benefits of animal interaction for human health and wellbeing [60]. In the self-evaluation subcategory, 5/19 (26%) outcomes found a significant effect of having an assistance dog on standardized measures of self-esteem, self-concept, and other measures of self-evaluation. Hall et al. A total of 254 records were screened via full text, of which 230 were excluded. The disadvantage of animal research is that it lessens the value of life. Limitations of Animal Tests - Humane Society International In addition, the scientist must justify the numbers of animals that they use, insuring they are using the smallest number possible.
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